Religion is a cultural phenomenon that shapes the lives of people, brings them together and often divides them. Its importance, the complexity of its influence on individuals and societies, and its power to change them have made it a subject for extensive study. Religion is the focus of several academic disciplines: archaeology, history, anthropology, sociology, and theology; the sciences of biology and chemistry; and the humanities of art, literature, and philosophy.
Despite the diversity of approaches and definitions, most scholars would agree that there are some characteristics that all religions have in common: a transcendent reality that provides meaning and purpose in life, reinforces social stability and cohesion, serves as an agent of positive social change, promotes physical and psychological well-being, and gives people hope for the future. Religion also has a strong sense of community and identity that can bring comfort in time of trouble and provide support during hard times.
Some scholars, such as Emile Durkheim and Ludwig Feuerbach, see religion as a universal feature of the human condition. Others, like Xenophanes and the sociologist Margaret Mead, understand it as a projection of humans’ aspirations. The modern study of religion, as an academic discipline, emerged with the development of anthropology and the other social sciences, which allowed for systematic knowledge about cultures worldwide.
While the concept of religion is a broad one, the field of academic study tends to concentrate on a few so-called world religions that are generally accepted as “dead” or at least having ceased to grow: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. Many other religious traditions exist throughout the world but are not considered major world religions, and there is considerable variation within the major traditions.
Different perspectives on religion use a variety of methodologies to examine the same phenomena, such as observing the beliefs and practices, evaluating the impact they have on people’s lives, and analyzing the structure and organization of religious institutions. Anthropology, for example, looks at the overall patterns of a religious tradition; sociology analyzes how a religion functions and who has the power to determine whether something is a religion; and psychology studies individual experiences, feelings, and attitudes.
Some scholars, such as Mary Zeldin and Sigmund Freud, have taken a more formal approach to the analysis of religion. They seek to find a pattern or structure that explains the origins of religion and its development. The strategy involves looking at the ways in which a culture defines a religion and how that definition changes over time. It also seeks to identify assumptions baked into the concept of religion that obscure our grasp of its historical realities. This approach is sometimes criticized as ethnocentric or biased. Nonetheless, it is a very powerful and useful way to look at religion. It has led some scholars to realize that their own definitions of religion are problematical and must be reconsidered. The process of reflection and revision has been a critical element in the academic study of religion.